TIME: Almanac 1995

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<text id=93CT1830> <link 90TT2892> <link 90TT2186> <link 90TT0235> <title> Pakistan--History </title> <history> Compact ALMANAC--CIA Factbook South Asia Pakistan </history> <article> <source>CIA World Factbook</source> <hdr> History </hdr> <body> In the 7th century A.D., Muslim sailors reached the coast of Sind, bringing Islam with them. They temporarily conquered Sind in the early 8th century. Between the 11th and 18th centuries, Afghan and Turkish invaders gradually spread their influence from what is now Afghanistan across most of northern South Asia, as far east as Bengal. Although large numbers of South Asians converted to Islam during this long period, Muslims in the subcontinent remained a minority, and Islam failed to penetrate predominantly Hindu southern India. The British arrived in 1601 but did not exert control over what is now India until the latter half of the 18th century. After 1850 the British, directly and indirectly, controlled virtually the entire subcontinent, including most of what is now Pakistan. In the early 20th century, Muslim and Hindu leaders began to agitate for a bigger voice in Indian (i.e., subcontinental) affairs. The largely Hindu Indian National Congress then formally petitioned Britain for a greater degree of home rule. To present their position more effectively, a number of Muslim leaders formed the All-India Muslim League in 1906. In 1913, the League adopted the same goal as the Indian National Congress: self-government for India within the British Empire. The Congress and the League failed to agree on a formula for the protection of Muslim religious and economic rights and representation in an independent Indian government. Mounting tension over the question of a proper Hindu-Muslim relationship led to a series of bitter communal disturbances, which recurred in India at intervals from 1920 until the outbreak of World War II. Pakistan and Partition The idea of establishing Pakistan as a separate Muslim state by a partition of India developed in the 1930s, especially after the popular elections of 1937. On March 23, 1940, Mohammed Ali Jinnah, leader of the Muslim League, publicly endorsed the "Pakistan Resolution" in an address in Lahore. At the end of World War II, the United Kingdom, suffering from the effects of the war, took the final steps to grant India independence. The Congress (party) and the Muslim League could not, however, agree on the terms for drafting a constitution or establishing an interim government. In June 1947, the British Government declared that it would grant full dominion status to two successor states--India and Pakistan. Pakistan would consist of the contiguous Muslim-majority districts of British India, Bengal and the Punjab would be partitioned, and the various princely states could freely accede to either India or Pakistan. This resulted in a bifurcated Pakistan separated by more than 1,600 kilometers (1,000 mi.). Pakistan became a self-governing dominion within the Commonwealth on August 14, 1947. After Independence Massive population movements accompanied the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947; communal bloodshed followed, resulting in the loss of uncounted thousands of lives. Some 6 million Muslims fled to Pakistan, and about as many Hindus and Sikhs fled to India--probably the largest population transfer in history. The death of Jinnah in 1948 and the assassination of Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan in 1951 eliminated two able leaders and dealt a serious blow to the nation's political development. The instability that followed brought frequent partisan realignments and Cabinet changes in the central government and in the provinces. After 1954, an economic decline further worsened the political situation. On March 23, 1956, following adoption by the National Assembly of a new constitution, Pakistan rejected its dominion status and became an "Islamic Republic" within the Commonwealth. In 1958, a group of senior military officers took control of the nation's affairs. On October 7 of that year, President Iskander Mirza, supported by Army Commander in Chief Gen. Ayub Khan and other officers, proclaimed a "peaceful revolution" and imposed martial law. With the resignation of Mirza on October 27, 1958, Gen. Ayub assumed the presidency. An indirect election confirmed his position, and on February 17, 1960, he began a 5-year term. President Ayub lifted martial law on June 8, 1962, and the new National Assembly convened in accordance with a new constitution promulgated by Ayub on March 23, 1962. The first presidential election under the 1962 constitution took place in January 1965, with President Ayub reelected for another 5-year term. In March 1969, after several months of political agitation, Ayub gave up the presidency. Gen. Yahya Khan, Commander in Chief of the Army, imposed martial law, took over as Chief Martial Law Administrator, and suspended the 1962 constitution. On April 1, 1969, he assumed the presidency. Under President Yahya, the martial law authorities stated their intent to restore constitutional rule when internal political conditions had stabilized. Full political activity legally resumed on January 1, 1970. Elections for a National Assembly and five provincial legislatures (four in the west, plus East Pakistan) took place in December. The 313-member Assembly was to adopt a constitution for a new civilian government, but the major unresolved issue remained East Pakistan's role in the reconstituted government. The Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won 167 seats all in East Pakistan. Its winning platform emphasized greater provincial autonomy. This position exacerbated the deep divisions already existing within Pakistan's Government and political leadership. The inability to agree on a mutually acceptable relationship between the central government and East Pakistan had been a long-festering political sore. The crisis erupted when the government postponed the National Assembly session, resulting in massive civil disturbances in East Pakistan. Last-minute efforts at negotiations failed, and on the night of March 25, 1971, the army began a crackdown on Bengali dissidents in East Pakistan. Mujibur Rahman was arrested and his party banned. Many of his aides fled to India where they established a provisional government. Tensions escalated; a massive flood of refugees crossed into India; and hostilities broke out between India and Pakistan in late November 1971. Combined Indian-Bengali forces soon overwhelmed Pakistan's small army contingent in the east. By the time Pakistan surrendered in the east on December 16, 1971, India had taken numerous prisoners and gained control of a large area of land. The Bhutto Years Pakistan's defeat resulted in the fall of Yahya Khan on December 20, 1971. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, whose Pakistan People's Party (PPP) had won a majority of the seats in West Pakistan in the 1970 elections, replaced Yahya. East Pakistan became independent as Bangladesh. Bhutto moved decisively to restore national confidence. In foreign policy, he was active in Islamic and Third World forums. Although Pakistan did not join the Nonaligned Movement until the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) was dissolved in 1979 (after Bhutto's fall), its position on most issues coincided with the goals of nonalignment throughout Bhutto's tenure. At home, Bhutto formed a political constituency based on rural landlords and urban populists, with a strong appeal to both urban and rural "have-nots." He nationalized major industries and banking. Wages and benefits for lower income industrial workers rose dramatically. The government also instituted land reform and attempted to restructure the feudal social system still intact in many rural areas, but results never met expectations. In 1973, Bhutto promulgated a new constitution approved by all political elements and stepped down as president to become prime minister. Although Bhutto never departed from his populist and reformist rhetoric, he increasingly formed alliances with Pakistan's urban industrialists and rural landlords. His rule also grew more authoritarian and capricious. Over time the economy stagnated, largely because of dislocation and uncertainty that resulted from Bhutto's frequently changing economic policies. When Bhutto called for elections in March 1977, nine leading opposition parties--from the secularist, pro-autonomy National Democratic party (which enjoyed significant support in the Northwest Frontier and Baluchistan) to the conservative, religious Jamaat-i-Islami--joined to form the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA). The PNA focused on the alleged inefficiency, corruption, and immorality of the Bhutto regime. Its attack seemed to strike a responsive chord. The outcome appeared uncertain, but Bhutto won two-thirds of the National Assembly seats. The opposition PNA denounced the election as a fraud and demanded new elections. Bhutto resisted and, after a wave of violence swept the country, arrested the PNA leadership. Law and order problems intensified, and Bhutto sought to reach an accord with the PNA. However, despite his offer to hold new elections, an agreement was not reached. 1977 Martial Law The army grew increasingly restive in its role as enforcer of civil order. On July 5, 1977, it removed Bhutto from power, declared martial law, and suspended portions of the 1973 constitution. Chief of Army Staff Gen. Mohammad Zia ul-Haq became Chief Martial Law Administrator and promised to hold new elections within 90 days. Initially, Zia claimed that he had not directed his action against Bhutto and that Bhutto could contest the election scheduled for October 1977. As the records of the Bhutto regime became available to the Martial Law Administration, however, Zia changed his mind. As Martial Law Administrator, he postponed the October 1977 elections and began criminal investigations of the PPP senior leadership. Bhutto, released from house arrest earlier along with other political leaders, was re-arrested, tried, and convicted for conspiracy to murder a political opponent, whose father had died in the attack. The Supreme Court upheld the verdict and death sentence, and Bhutto was hanged on April 6, 1979. After changing his position about the 1977 elections, Zia began to formalize his regime. He created an Advisory Council formed mostly of technocrats and government servants. In August 1978, representatives of several political parties were introduced into the council, redesigned as a Cabinet. The politicians remained in the government until after Bhutto's execution and the announcement of new elections for November 1979. On September 16, 1978, Pakistan's President Choudhury resigned his office. Under the terms of the 1973 constitution, the Chief Justice should have assumed the presidency. Claiming that the Chief Justice was too involved in the ongoing Bhutto appeal, Gen. Zia became President. Zia stated that until the elections, he would serve as both President and Chief Martial Law Administrator. As the elections neared, the regime relaxed some of the constraints on political activity. The PNA had fallen into disarray, leaving the PPP as the strongest party. Failing to devise electoral rules satisfactory to all parties and himself, and fearful of a PPP victory, Gen. Zia announced the postponement of national elections and banning of political activity in October 1979. Nonparty elections were held, however, for local bodies. In 1980, most center and left parties, led by the PPP, formed the Movement for the Restoration of Democracy (MRD). The MRD demanded Zia's resignation, an end to martial law, new elections, and restoration of the 1973 constitution as it existed before Zia's takeover. On August 12, 1983, President Zia announced his intention to end martial law and to hold new elections by March 23, 1985. He also set new elections for local bodies on a nonparty basis for August and September. At the same time, he called for amendments to the 1973 constitution that would serve to increase the power of the president of Pakistan--largely a figurehead in the original document Bhutto had devised when he chose to be prime minister. Violence erupted after President Zia's announcement. The MRD denounced the nonparty elections and began a campaign of civil disobedience. The violence, confined to the Sind Province, lasted about 3 months and cost the lives of some 300 persons. In early December 1984, President Zia proclaimed a national referendum for December 19, asking voters to approve his program of Islamization. He also declared that if voters passed the referendum, they would approve his continuation in office for 5 years from the first sitting of the next National Assembly. Zia's opponents, led by the MRD, called for a boycott. Subsequently, the government claimed a 62.9% turnout, with more than 90% of those who voted approving the referendum. Many outside the government questioned these figures. Capitalizing on his referendum victory, President Zia announced national and provincial assembly elections for February 25 and 27, 1985. Candidates were required to run on a nonparty basis but were not disqualified because of past party affiliation. Perhaps misjudging the effectiveness of its referendum boycott and the appeal of new elections, the MRD again urged the voters to stay home. However, several conservative and religious parties, including the Pakistan Muslim League faction headed by the Pir of Pagaro and the Jamaat-i-Islami, endorsed the balloting. Continuing a trend begun during the local bodies elections, the MRD suffered numerous defections, as politicians abandoned their parties to stand for office. The boycott failed; most independent observers vouch for the claimed 53% turnout for the National Assembly ballot (with a slightly higher percentage of voter turnout in the provincial elections). The elections generally were free of fraud (as evidenced by the defeat of five serving members of Zia's Cabinet). The boycott failure accentuated MRD divisions and left Zia's opposition in further disarray. On March 3, 1985, President Zia proclaimed constitutional changes designed to reduce the imbalance of power between the offices of president and prime minister. Subsequently, he named Mohammed Khan Junejo, a Muslim League member, as his choice for prime minister. The new National Assembly met for the first time on March 23, 1985. The delegates unanimously accepted Junejo as prime minister. In the course of lengthy debate during the summer and early fall over Zia's proposed eighth amendment to the constitution, which embodied the March decree, the assembly divided into two loose blocs: the proadministration Official Parliamentary Group (OPG), comprising roughly two-thirds of the members; and an Independent Parliamentary Group (IPG). The amendment passed in October 1985, following agreement between the OPG and IPG on a series of modifications restoring greater powers to the prime minister. The president must consult the prime minister and his cabinet. He cannot dismiss the prime minister without first securing a vote of "no confidence" from the Assembly. After 1990, the president must appoint as prime minister whoever holds the Assembly majority. The president also lost the power generally to dissolve the Assembly at will but retained the right to submit to national referendum "any matter of national importance." The amendment confirmed all actions taken during the martial law period (including decisions of military courts) and exempted them from judicial review. 1985--End to Martial Law On December 30, 1985, President Zia lifted martial law, restoring all constitutional rights safeguarded under the 1973 constitution. He also lifted the Bhutto government's declaration of emergency powers. Immediately before doing so, he issued a final martial law order (MLO 107) revoking most prior martial law orders. In December 1985, the National Assembly amended the Political Parties Act to require all parties to hold internal elections, declare their finances, and register before participating in elections. The new act also bars Assembly members from changing party registration. The first months of 1986 witnessed a rebirth of political activity throughout Pakistan. With the lifting of restrictions, all parties--including those that continue to deny the legitimacy of the Zia/Junejo government--have been able to organize and hold rallies. On April 10, 1986, PPP leader Benazir Bhutto returned to Pakistan from exile in Europe. Source: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, March 1987. </body> </article> </text>